Izibani zokukhempa ziye zashintsha kakhulu ngokufika kwama-LED e-COB. Lawa mamojula okukhanyisa athuthukile ahlanganisa ama-chip amaningi e-LED abe yiyunithi eyodwa, ehlangene. Lo mklamo uvumela izibani zokukhempa ze-COB ukuthi zilethe ukukhanya okumangalisayo, okwandisa ukukhanya ngo-50% uma kuqhathaniswa nezinketho zendabuko. Ukukhishwa okuphezulu kwe-lumen kuqinisekisa ukubonakala okungcono, ngisho nasezindaweni ezimnyama kakhulu zangaphandle. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ubuchwepheshe obusebenzisa amandla kahle bunciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwamandla, okwenza lezi zibani zilungele ukusetshenziswa kwangaphandle isikhathi eside. Umklamo wazo omusha uhlanganisa ukusebenza kahle kanye nokusebenza kahle, okunikeza ukusebenza okungenakuqhathaniswa kwabakhempa kanye nabahambi ngezimoto ngokufanayo.
Izinto Ezibalulekile Okufanele Uzicabangele
- Ama-LED e-COB enzaizibani zokukhempa zikhanya ngo-50%, okukusiza ukuthi ubone kangcono ebumnyameni.
- Zisebenzisa amandla amancane, ngakho-ke amabhethri ahlala isikhathi eside ngesikhathi sohambo.
- Izibani ze-COB zisakaza ukukhanya ngokulinganayo, zisusa amabala amnyama kanye nokukhanya ukuze kuphephe futhi kududuzeke.
- Umklamo wabo omncane nolula ubenzakulula ukuyiphatha kubantu abahlala emakamu.
- Izibani ze-COB zihlala amahora angu-50,000 kuya ku-100,000, okwenza ziqine futhi zithembeke.
Ayini ama-LED e-COB?
Incazelo kanye nezisekelo zama-LED e-COB
I-COB LED, isifinyezo se-Chip on Board, imelela intuthuko yesimanje kwezobuchwepheshe be-LED. Ihilela ukufaka ama-chip amaningi e-LED ngqo ku-substrate eyodwa, ukudala imojuli yokukhanyisa ehlangene futhi esebenza kahle. Lo mklamo uthuthukisa ukukhishwa kokukhanya ngenkathi kunciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwamandla. Ngokungafani nama-LED e-SMD endabuko, ama-COB LED afaka uhla lwama-chip ahlanganiswe eduze akhiqiza ukukhanya okufanayo nokungenakukhanya. Ukuphathwa kwawo kokushisa okuphezulu kanye nokusebenza kahle kwamandla kuwenza afanelekele izinhlelo zokusebenza ezahlukahlukene, kufaka phakathi izibani zokukhempa ze-COB, izibonisi zezentengiselwano, kanye nokukhanya kwangaphandle.
Isakhiwo Nomklamo Wobuchwepheshe be-COB
Isakhiwo sobuchwepheshe be-COB senzelwe ukusebenza kahle kakhulu. Ama-chip e-LED ahlelwe ngokuqinile ebhodini lesifunda eliprintiwe eliguquguqukayo (i-FPCB), elinciphisa amaphuzu okwehluleka futhi liqinisekise ukukhanya okuqhubekayo. Ama-chip axhunywe ngokulandelana nangochungechunge, okuvumela ukukhanya ukuthi kuhlale kusebenza noma amanye ama-chip ehluleka. Ubuningi be-chip ephezulu, evame ukufinyelela kuma-chip angu-480 ngemitha, isusa amabala amnyama futhi ihlinzeka ngokusabalalisa kokukhanya okungenamthungo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ama-LED e-COB anikeza i-engeli ebanzi ye-beam engu-180-degree, eqinisekisa ukukhanya okukhulu nokulinganayo.
| Isici | Incazelo |
|---|---|
| Ukukhanya Okufanayo Okuphumayo | Inikeza ukubukeka kokukhanya okuhlala njalo ngaphandle kwamachashazi abonakalayo, okuthuthukisa ubuhle. |
| Umklamo Wesekethe | Ama-chips anamathele ngqo kwi-FPCB, okunciphisa amaphuzu okwehluleka okungenzeka. |
| Ukucushwa kwe-Chip | Ukuxhumeka okuhambisanayo nochungechunge kuqinisekisa ukusebenza ngisho noma ama-chip ehluleka. |
| Ubuningi be-Chip Ephezulu | Kufika kuma-chips angu-480 ngemitha, okuvimbela izindawo ezimnyama nokuqinisekisa ukukhanya okufanayo. |
| I-engeli ebanzi ekhiphayo | I-engeli yomugqa we-degree engu-180 yokusabalalisa ukukhanya okubanzi nokulinganayo. |
Kungani ama-LED e-COB ephumelela ekukhanyeni
Ama-LED e-COB ashintshe ukwakheka kokukhanya ngokunikeza ukusebenza kahle okuthuthukisiwe, ukuthembeka, kanye nokusebenza. Ngokungafani nama-LED endabuko, ama-LED e-COB asebenzisa inqubo yokukhiqiza elula lapho ama-chip ehlanganiswa khona ngqo ku-FPCB, okuthuthukisa ukuzinza kanye nokushabalalisa ukushisa. Aletha ukukhanya okuqondile esikhundleni sokukhanya okuqondile, okuholela ekukhanyeni kwemvelo nokufanayo. Nge-Color Rendering Index (CRI) evame ukuba ngaphezu kwama-97, ama-LED e-COB anikeza ikhwalithi yokukhanya ephezulu, okwenza afaneleke kakhulu ezinhlelweni zokusebenza ezidinga ukunemba kombala okuphezulu. Amandla awo okuhlanganisa ukusebenza kahle okuphezulu nokuthembeka okuhle kakhulu awenze aba ukukhetha okuthandwayo kokubili izixazululo zokukhanyisa zokuhlala nezebhizinisi.
| Isici | Ama-LED endabuko | Ama-LED e-COB |
|---|---|---|
| Inqubo Yokukhiqiza | Ama-chips e-SMD ane-holder soldering | Ama-chips athengiswa ngqo ku-FPC |
| Ukuzinza | Ukuqina okuphansi | Ukuqina okuthuthukisiwe |
| Ukushabalalisa Ukushisa | Akusebenza kahle | Ukushabalalisa ukushisa okuphezulu |
| Uhlobo Lokukhanyisa | Iphuzu nephuzu | Ukukhanya okuqondile |
Indlela Ama-LED e-COB Akhulisa Ngayo Ukukhanya

Ukukhishwa Okuphezulu Kwe-Lumen Nokusebenza Kahle
Ama-LED e-COB aletha ukukhanya okumangalisayo ngenxa yomklamo wawo omusha. Ngokuhlanganisa ama-chip amaningi e-LED kumojula owodwa, afinyelela ukusebenza kahle okuphezulu kokukhanya, akhiqiza ukukhanya okwengeziwe nge-watt ngayinye yamandla asetshenziswayo. Lokhu kusebenza kahle kuwenza afaneleke kakhulu ezinhlelweni zokusebenza ezidinga ukukhanya okukhulu, njengokuthiIzibani zokukhempa ze-COB.
- Izinzuzo ezibalulekile zama-LED e-COB:
- Ukusebenza kahle okuphezulu kokukhanya uma kuqhathaniswa namamojula e-LED endabuko.
- Ukukhanya okwandisiwe ngenxa yokuhlelwa kwazo okuqinile nokuqinile kwe-chip.
- Ukusetshenziswa kwamandla okuphansi, kunciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwamandla ngesikhathi semisebenzi yangaphandle.
| Isici | Ama-LED e-COB | Ama-LED endabuko |
|---|---|---|
| Ukusebenza Kahle Okukhanyayo | Kuphezulu ngenxa yomklamo omusha | Kunciphile ngenxa yezinyathelo zokukhiqiza |
| Ukukhanya Okuphumayo | Ukukhanya okwandisiwe | Ukukhanya okujwayelekile |
Lezi zici ziqinisekisa ukuthi izibani ze-COB zokukhempa zinikeza ukukhanya okuthembekile nokunamandla, ngisho nasezindaweni ezimnyama kakhulu.
Ukusatshalaliswa Kokukhanya Okufanayo Ukuze Kukhanye Kangcono
Ukwakheka kwesakhiwo sama-COB LED kuqinisekisa ukusatshalaliswa kokukhanya okufanayo, kususa amabala amnyama kanye nokukhanya okukhanyayo. Ngokungafani nama-LED endabuko, avame ukukhiqiza ukukhanya okuqondile, ama-COB LED adala ukukhanya okubushelelezi nokubanzi. Lokhu kufana kuthuthukisa ukubonakala, okwenza kube ngcono kakhulu ezindaweni zangaphandle.
- Izinzuzo zokusatshalaliswa kokukhanya okufanayo:
- Ukukhanya okuqhubekayo ezindaweni ezibanzi.
- Ukunciphisa ukukhanya, okuthuthukisa induduzo ngesikhathi sokusetshenziswa isikhathi eside.
- Ubuhle obuthuthukisiwe ngenxa yokungabikho kwamachashazi okukhanya abonakalayo.
Lesi sici senzaIzibani zokukhempa ze-COBukukhetha okuhle kakhulu kokukhanyisa izindawo ezinkulu, njengezindawo zokukhempa noma izindlela zokuhamba ngezinyawo, ukuqinisekisa ukuphepha kanye nokulula kwabathandi bangaphandle.
Ukulahlekelwa Amandla Okuncishisiwe kanye Nokukhiqizwa Kokushisa
Ama-LED e-COB ahamba phambili ekuphatheni ukushisa, anciphisa ukulahleka kwamandla kanye nokukhiqizwa kokushisa. Umklamo wawo uhlanganisa amasu athuthukile okususa ukushisa, njengezinki zokushisa ze-aluminium alloy, ezidlulisa ukushisa kahle kude nama-chips e-LED. Lokhu kunciphisa ingozi yokushisa ngokweqile futhi kwandise isikhathi sokuphila semodyuli yokukhanyisa.
| Isici | Imininingwane |
|---|---|
| Umsebenzi Wokucwilisa Ukushisa | Idlulisela ukushisa kude ne-PCB ukuvimbela ukwakheka kokushisa. |
| Izinto Zokuqhuba | I-aluminium alloy iqinisekisa ukuhanjiswa okuphezulu kokushisa (cishe i-190 W/mk). |
| Izinga Lokushisa Elihlanganisiwe | Amazinga okushisa aphansi abonisa ukuphathwa kokushisa okuphezulu. |
Ngokugcina amazinga okushisa aphansi okusebenza, izibani ze-COB zokukhempa zinikeza ukusebenza okuhlala njalo nokuqina, okwenza zibe umngane othembekile wezokuzijabulisa zangaphandle ezinde.
Izibani Zekamu ze-COB vs. Ama-LED Endabuko

Ukuqhathaniswa Kokukhanya Nokusebenza Kahle Kwamandla
Izibani zokukhempa ze-COBAma-LED endabuko asebenza kahle kakhulu ngokukhanya nokusebenza kahle kwamandla. Umklamo wawo omusha uhlanganisa ama-diode amaningi abe yimojula eyodwa, okwenza kube nokusebenza kahle kokukhanya okuphezulu. Ngenkathi ama-LED endabuko ekhiqiza ama-lumen angu-20 kuya kwangu-50 nge-watt ngayinye, ama-LED e-COB angafinyelela ama-lumen afinyelela ku-100 nge-watt ngayinye, alethe ukukhanya okukhanyayo ngokusetshenziswa kwamandla okuncane. Lokhu kusebenza kahle kwenza izibani ze-COB zokukhempa zilungele ukusetshenziswa isikhathi eside ngaphandle, lapho ukulondoloza impilo yebhethri kubalulekile khona.
| Isici | Ama-LED e-COB | Ama-LED endabuko |
|---|---|---|
| Inani lama-Diode | Ama-diode angu-9 noma ngaphezulu nge-chip ngayinye | Ama-diode ama-3 (i-SMD), i-diode e-1 (i-DIP) |
| Umphumela we-Lumen nge-Watt ngayinye | Kufika kuma-lumens ayi-100 nge-watt ngayinye | Ama-lumens angu-20-50 nge-watt ngayinye |
| Izinga Lokwehluleka | Kuphansi ngenxa yokuhlangana okuncane kwe-solder | Kuphezulu ngenxa yokuhlangana okuningi kwe-solder |
Ama-LED e-COB nawo asebenza kahle kakhulu ekukhanyeni nasekushiseni. Ukukhanya kwawo okungenamthungo kususa amachashazi abonakalayo, okudala ulwazi lokukhanya olukhululekile. Uhlelo lokuphatha ukushisa oluthuthukisiwe luqinisekisa ukusebenza okufanayo, ngisho nangesikhathi sokusetshenziswa isikhathi eside.
| Isici | I-COB LED | I-SMD LED |
|---|---|---|
| Ukusebenza Okukhanyayo | Ama-lumens aphezulu/W | Ama-lumens aphansi/W |
| Ukukhanya Okufanayo Kokukhipha Ukukhanya | Akunamthungo | Amachashazi |
| Ukushabalalisa Ukushisa | Kuhle kakhulu | Okumaphakathi |
Umklamo Omncane kanye Nekhwalithi Yokukhanya Ethuthukisiwe
Umklamo omncane wama-COB LED uwahlukanisa nezixazululo zokukhanyisa zendabuko. Ngokufaka ama-chip amaningi ku-substrate eyodwa, ama-COB LED afinyelela isakhiwo esilula esinciphisa ubukhulu ngenkathi kuthuthukiswa ukusebenza. Lo mklamo uvumela izibani ze-COB zokukhempa ukuthi zilethe ikhwalithi yokukhanya ephezulu, ngokusebenza kahle okukhanyayo okusukela ku-80 kuya ku-120 lm/W kumamodeli ajwayelekile kanye nokudlula ku-150 lm/W ngezinhlobo zokusebenza okuphezulu.
| Imininingwane | Imininingwane |
|---|---|
| Ukusebenza Kahle Okukhanyayo | 80 kuya ku-120 lm/W kumamodeli ajwayelekile; amamodeli asebenza kahle kakhulu adlula i-150 lm/W; amamodeli esizukulwane sesithupha adlula i-184 lm/W. |
| Inkomba Yokunikeza Umbala (i-CRI) | Amanani ajwayelekile e-CRI aphakathi kuka-80 no-90; izinhlobo ze-CRI ephezulu ziyatholakala (90+ noma 95+) zezinhlelo zokusebenza ezidinga kakhulu. |
| Isikhathi sokuphila | Amahora angu-50,000 kuya ku-100,000, okulingana neminyaka engu-17 esetshenziswa amahora angu-8 ngosuku. |
| Ukuphathwa Kokushisa | Ukupholisa okungenamsebenzi ngama-heat sink e-aluminium; ukupholisa okusebenzayo kwezinhlelo zokusebenza ezinamandla aphezulu. |
Ama-LED e-COB aphinde anikeze ikhwalithi yokukhanya ethuthukisiwe, ene-Color Rendering Index (CRI) engu-80 kuya ku-90 kumamodeli ajwayelekile kanye ne-95 yezinhlobo ze-CRI ephezulu. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukumelwa kombala okunembile, okwenza izibani ze-COB zokukhempa zilungele imisebenzi yangaphandle edinga ukubonakala okucacile.
Ukuqina Nokuphila Isikhathi Eside Kwezibani Zokukhempa ze-COB
Izibani zokukhempa ze-COB zenzelwe ukuqina nokuphila isikhathi eside, okwenza zibe abangane abathembekile bezokuzijabulisa zangaphandle. Ukwakheka kwazo kwesakhiwo kuthuthukisa ukukhanya nokufana, ngezinketho zokukhanya okuphezulu ezifinyelela ku-lumens engu-2000 ngemitha. Ukwakhiwa okuqinile kwama-COB LED kuzivumela ukuthi zikwazi ukumelana nezimo ezinzima, okuqinisekisa ukusebenza okuqhubekayo ezindaweni eziyinselele.
Isibonelo, i-Gearlight Camping Lantern isebenzisa ubuchwepheshe obuthuthukisiwe be-COB LED ukuhlinzeka ngokukhanya okumhlophe okukhanyayo okungu-360 degrees. Ukwakheka kwayo okuhlala isikhathi eside kuqinisekisa isikhathi eside sokuphila, ngama-COB LED ahlala phakathi kwamahora angu-50,000 no-100,000. Lokhu kuphila isikhathi eside kulingana neminyaka engaba ngu-17 yokusetshenziswa kwansuku zonke, okwenza izibani ze-COB zokukhempa zibe ukukhetha okungabizi kakhulu nokwethenjelwa kwabathandi bangaphandle.
Izinzuzo Zezibani Zokukhempa ze-COB Zemisebenzi Yangaphandle
Ukubonakala Okuthuthukisiwe Ezimweni Eziphansi Kokukhanya
Izibani zokukhempa ze-COBzinikeza ukubonakala okungavamile ezindaweni ezinokukhanya okuphansi, okwenza zibe yinto ebalulekile emisebenzini yangaphandle. Umklamo wazo othuthukisiwe uqinisekisa ukusatshalaliswa kokukhanya okufanayo, ususa amabala amnyama kanye nokukhanya okukhanyayo. Lesi sici sithuthukisa ukuphepha kanye nokulula ngesikhathi sezinto ezenzeka ebusuku, njengokuhamba ngezinyawo, ukukhempa, noma ukudoba. Ukukhishwa okuphezulu kwe-lumen kwama-LED e-COB kuqinisekisa ukuthi abasebenzisi bangakwazi ukuhamba emizileni, bamise amatende, noma bapheke ukudla kalula, ngisho nasebumnyameni obuphelele. I-engeli ebanzi yokukhanya ithuthukisa ukukhanya, imboze izindawo ezinkulu futhi iqinisekise ukukhanya okuqhubekayo kuyo yonke indawo yokukhempa.
Impilo Yebhethri Eyandisiwe Yezigigaba Ezinde
Ukusebenza kahle kwamandla kwezibani zokukhempa ze-COB kwandisa kakhulu impilo yebhethri, okwenza zibe zilungele ukusetshenziswa isikhathi eside ngaphandle. Lezi zibani zisebenzisa amandla amancane ngenkathi ziletha ukukhanya okuphezulu, ziqinisekisa ukusebenza okuthembekile phakathi nohambo olude. Izibani eziningi zokukhempa ze-COB zinamabhethri e-lithium-ion ashajwayo anamandla amakhulu, anikeza izikhathi zokusebenza ezihlaba umxhwele.
| Isici | Imininingwane |
|---|---|
| Umthamo Webhethri | Umthamo omkhulu |
| Isikhathi Sokusebenza | Kufika emahoreni ayi-10,000 |
| Isikhathi sokuphila | Amahora ayi-10,000 |
Ngaphezu kwalokho, izibani zokukhempa ze-COB zinikeza izilungiselelo eziningi zokukhanya ukuze kusetshenziswe kahle amandla. Isibonelo, ezilungiselelweni eziphezulu, zingasebenza amahora afinyelela kwangu-5, kuyilapho izilungiselelo eziphakathi nendawo neziphansi zandisa izikhathi zokusebenza zibe amahora angu-15 nama-45, ngokulandelana.
| Isici | Imininingwane |
|---|---|
| Isikhathi Esimaphakathi Sokugijima (Okuphezulu) | Kufika emahoreni ama-5 |
| Isikhathi Esimaphakathi Sokusebenza (Esiphakathi) | Amahora ayi-15 |
| Isikhathi Esimaphakathi Sokugijima (Esiphansi) | Amahora angu-45 |
| Uhlobo Lwebhethri | I-lithium-ion engu-4800 mAh eshajwayo |
Lokhu kuphila kwebhethri okude kuqinisekisa ukuthi abantu abavakashela izindawo ezithile bangathembela ezibanini zabo zokukhempa ze-COB ukuze zikhanyise ngaphandle kokushaja njalo noma ukushintsha ibhethri.
Idizayini Elula Nephathekayo Yokuthwala Kalula
Izibani zokukhempa ze-COB zakhiwe ngokucabangela ukuphatheka kalula, okwenza kube lula ukuzithwala ngesikhathi semisebenzi yangaphandle. Ukwakhiwa kwazo okulula kunciphisa umthwalo kubasebenzisi, okubavumela ukuthi bagxile ezintweni abazenzayo. Isibonelo, ezinye izibani zokukhempa ze-COB zinesisindo esingamagremu angu-157.4 futhi zinezilinganiso ezincane ezingama-215 × 50 × 40mm. Lokhu kuzenza ziphatheke kalula futhi kube lula ukuzipakisha.
- Iumklamo olula, enesisindo esingamagremu angu-650 kuphela kwamanye amamodeli, iqinisekisa ukufaneleka kokuhamba ngezinyawo okude noma uhambo lokukhempa.
- Izici ezifana nesisekelo sikamazibuthe kanye nezingwegwe ezilungisekayo zithuthukisa ukusetshenziswa, okuvumela izibani ukuthi zinamathele ngokuphephile ezindaweni ezahlukahlukene noma zilengiswe ematendeni.
Lezi zinto zokuklama zenza izibani ze-COB zokukhempa zibe yisinqumo esihle kakhulu kubathandi bangaphandle ababeka phambili ukulula nokusebenza.
Izibani zokukhempa ze-COB zishintshe ukukhanya kwangaphandle ngomklamo wazo omusha kanye nobuchwepheshe obuthuthukisiwe. Ngokuletha ukukhanya okwengeziwe okungu-50%, ziqinisekisa ukubonakala okuphezulu ezimweni zokukhanya okuphansi. Ukusebenza kwazo okusebenzisa amandla kahle kwandisa impilo yebhethri, okwenza zibe zilungele uhambo olude. Isakhiwo esincane nesilula sithuthukisa ukuphatheka kalula, sihlangabezana nezidingo zabantu abahlala emakhempini banamuhla. Lezi zici zenza izibani zokukhempa ze-COB zibe ithuluzi elibalulekile kubantu abathanda ngaphandle abafuna izixazululo zokukhanya ezithembekile nezisebenza kahle.
Imibuzo Evame Ukubuzwa
1. Yini eyenza ama-LED e-COB asebenzise amandla amaningi kune-LED yendabuko?
Ama-LED e-COB ahlanganisa ama-chip amaningi kwimojula eyodwa, anciphisa ukulahleka kwamandla. Ukwakheka kwawo okufushane kunciphisa ukukhiqizwa kokushisa, okuqinisekisa ukusebenza kahle okuphezulu kokukhanya. Lokhu kusebenza kahle kuvumela izibani ze-COB zokukhempa ukuthi zikhiqize ukukhanya okukhanyayo ngenkathi zisebenzisa amandla amancane, okwenza zibe zilungele ukusetshenziswa isikhathi eside ngaphandle.
2. Izibani ze-COB zokukhempa zivame ukuhlala isikhathi esingakanani?
Izibani zokukhempa ze-COB ziphila isikhathi eside, ngokuvamile zisukela emahoreni angu-50,000 kuya kwangu-100,000. Lokhu kuqina kuhumusha cishe iminyaka engu-17 yokusetshenziswa kwansuku zonke ngamahora angu-8 ngosuku, okuqinisekisa ukuthembeka kwesikhathi eside kwabathandi bangaphandle.
3. Ingabe izibani ze-COB zokukhempa zifanelekile ezimweni zezulu ezimbi kakhulu?
Yebo, izibani zokukhempa ze-COB zenzelwe ukuqina. Ukwakhiwa kwazo okuqinile kanye nokuphathwa kokushisa okuthuthukisiwe kuzenza zikwaziyenza njaloezindaweni eziyinselele, okuhlanganisa amazinga okushisa aphezulu kanye nezindawo ezimangelengele. Lokhu kuzenza zibe ukukhetha okuthembekile kohambo lwangaphandle.
4. Ingabe izibani ze-COB zokukhempa zingasetshenziswa kwezinye izinjongo ngaphandle kokukhempa?
Impela! Izibani zokukhempa ze-COB ziyahlukahluka futhi zifanelekela izinhlelo zokusebenza ezahlukahlukene. Zingakhanyisa izindawo zokusebenza, zisebenze njengezibani eziphuthumayo ngesikhathi sokucima kukagesi, noma zinikeze ukukhanya kwemicimbi yangaphandle. Ukuphatheka kwazo nokukhanya kwazo kuzenza zibe yisisombululo esisebenzayo ezimweni eziningi.
5. Ingabe izibani zokukhempa ze-COB zidinga ukulungiswa okukhethekile?
Izibani zokukhempa ze-COB zidinga ukunakekelwa okuncane. Ukuhlanza njalo ilensi nokuqinisekisa ukunakekelwa kwebhethri okufanele kuzozigcina zisebenza kahle. Umklamo wazo othuthukisiwe nezinto eziqinile kunciphisa isidingo sokulungiswa njalo noma ukushintshwa, okunikeza ulwazi lomsebenzisi olungenazinkinga.
Isikhathi sokuthunyelwe: Ephreli-11-2025
fannie@nbtorch.com
+0086-0574-28909873


